Recently a study was conducted that explored the impact of using marijuana and alcohol together (Harrington, Baird et al. 2012). The researchers sought to investigate whether specific clusters of individuals using the substances together existed and the spectrum of consequences that are associated with these behaviors.

To gather data, the researchers utilized information gathered during a randomized controlled trial related to brief intervention at an emergency room in a trauma department.

The researchers examined data from 427 participants who had agreed to sign up for a study focused on consequences of the use of alcohol and marijuana and had also indicated that they had used the substances within the past month. The researchers gathered information from the participants about their frequency of use for both substances during the past month.

Using a cluster analysis, the research team identified sub-groups of users of both marijuana and alcohol according to their frequency of use. There were also several additional inventories completed by the participants:

• Marijuana Problem Scale
• Alcohol Use Disorders Inventory Test
• Noteworthy Index of Problems
• Injury Behavior Scale
• High Risk Behavior Scale

The researchers used the separate measures to compute a single score for each individual enrolled in the study. Analysis of Variance and Tukey tests were used to compare the participants grouped in clusters and determine whether there were differences in behavioral and psychosocial factors.

The researchers’ analysis showed that there were four specific clusters of participants identified based on the frequency of marijuana and alcohol use.

The authors of the study note that there are limitations to the results of the study, such as the use of self-reported data can result in some bias. In addition, while the study measured frequency of use for the two substances, there was no inclusion of a measure to determine quantity of use.

The analysis of the clusters showed that for individuals who use alcohol daily, there were more alcohol-related problems when compared with those who used it weekly, despite the level of marijuana use. For marijuana, the pattern was not as apparent and there were more variations among the clusters of users.

The study’s findings may be very helpful for those who plan education and intervention for marijuana and alcohol users. Those who use both of the substances on a daily basis may require intervention because of the high number of consequences associated with the substances.

Kenny is not alone in his quest to analyze the science of how certain foods can manipulate the brain. Twenty-eight scientific studies about food addiction have been published this year alone.

In Kenny’s study, his team fed rats fatty and sugary processed foods such as bacon, pound cake, cheesecake and cake frosting. Rats that were given nutritious food all day long and sweets for one hour started binge eating. Rats that had access to the fatty foods all day long became obese.

In a similar Princeton University study, rats had increased cravings as they drank more and more water mixed with high fructose corn syrup. Their brain patterns became consistent with those who take more and more cocaine. The rats eventually became obese and when the sugary effect was blocked with a drug, they experienced withdrawal symptoms of tremors and anxiety, also consistent with withdrawal from cocaine.

While humans have always had natural sugar and fat in their diet, modern processing may be a culprit in causing food addiction. Processed foods have higher levels of sugar, refined flour and unhealthy fat. David Ludwig, a researcher for Harvard and the director of New Balance Foundation Obesity Prevention Center at Children’s Hospital, states that extremely processed foods may make blood sugar rapidly rise and decline and also overstimulate and desensitize the reward receipt in the brain. This desensitization is why people feel they are not getting enough of their desired sensation and crave more and more of the food that is pleasurable, but unhealthy.

Dr. Gene-Jack Wang, M.D., of Energy’s Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York, states that even cocaine was altered so that it could be smoked or injected to more efficiently affect the brain. This purification made the drug more addictive. Today’s food has been altered in the same way. Whole grains have turned into white bread and corn has turned into high fructose corn syrup.

Wang and Nora Volkow, director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, conducted a study of dopamine levels in 10 obese volunteers. Dopamine is a chemical in the brain that signals reward. As a person uses more cocaine or other drugs, the dopamine signal may stop responding, which leads the abuser to take more. Wang and Volkow’s study found that the dopamine levels were also lower in the obese volunteers than in a leaner control group.

In a country where a third of adults and 17 percent of children are obese, this research is encouraging scientists like Mark Gold, chair of the psychiatry department at the University of Florida, to find drug treatments for obesity. He is currently working on a drug to alter a person’s food preferences without altering their regular appetite. With continued research and the trend of companies to offer healthier fun snacks, the victory against obesity is hopeful.

#1 Pornography addiction stems from having a marriage partner with little interest in sex.

The reality, say experts, is that pornography addiction is most often a result of a long-time problem with intimacy or other problems on a deep emotional level. For these reasons, a spouse cannot actually “spur” on a pornography addiction, nor can a spouse create a solution by changing their sexual behaviors with their partner.

#2 Pornography addiction can be stopped whenever the user desires.

Pornography addiction has been compared to heroin, cocaine, or other drug addictions for its powerful release of dopamine in the brain. In fact, studies of the brain have shown that the reward-based releases that occur from viewing pornography can create a reaction that is similar to chemical dependency. Adrenaline and serotonin levels have also been shown to increase when a person uses pornography, and many people with porn addiction must work through extremely strong cravings.

Similar to alcohol or drugs, pornography becomes a tool for escape from anxiety or stress, and the person quickly finds himself unable to stop viewing the material. As the addiction progresses, a person may experience chronic deprivation of dopamine and must seek pornography to feel “ok” again.

People struggling with pornography addiction may also believe that the disease doesn’t affect loved ones or other areas of their lives. However, the consequences of pornography addiction often include neglect of spouse or children; poor performance and distraction at work; or financial ruin if a career is lost or the person escalates the behavior into paid sexual services. Powerful feelings of anger, guilt, shame, or depression can destroy the emotional health of a person’s spouse. For these reasons, many experts believe that overcoming pornography addiction is most successful when a couple commits to therapy together.

#3 Pornography addiction develops in people who have diminished morals or character deficiencies.

A growing body of research surrounding pornography addiction and sexually compulsive behavior has shed light on the biological responses pornography can trigger. Studies based upon brain imagery while pornography is viewed are providing more information about how multiple physical systems are activated by the material, with distinct gender differences noted.

#4 Pornography addiction will heighten or enhance sexual relationships.

Research suggests the contrary, with studies and surveys indicating that many people with pornography addictions note declining sexual satisfaction and the persistent feeling of wanting “more” from partners. Experiences like sexual detachment and erectile problems have also been noted across a gamut of ages, including young adult pornography users.

Like the battle against drug and alcohol addictions, there are professional treatment and recovery centers for pornography addictions. Web filters, accountability partners, group and individual therapy, and family counseling can be part of an overall recovery strategy for escaping the consuming power of pornography addictions, believed to affect millions of people worldwide.

As the habit increases into a dependency, the person loses proper perspective. Responsibilities and relationships are laid on the altar and whenever the craving is not satisfied there is a withdrawal manifestation such as anger or depression. Could this happen with something as beneficial and desirable as exercise? Sadly yes.

A Fine Line

Many athletes develop strict training regimens and incorporate exercise into many facets of their daily life. It is important to note that a strong commitment to exercise is not addiction. Addiction happens when commitment ratchets up to compulsion. The person addicted to exercise feels they must exercise and they must do so at all costs.

People addicted to exercise may run or visit the gym several times in a single day. They will exercise even on occasions when they are sick or injured. Most telling, perhaps, is the compulsion to exercise at the cost of meaningful life events with friends, family, and/or work.

Again, this sort of commitment may occur short-term in a psychologically healthy athlete as they train for a specific event. The addict, on the other hand, exhibits this sort of exclusionary focus and value toward exercise in a chronic fashion.

From Athlete to Addict

It is not clear how a person transitions from committed athlete to addict. Some suggest that the endorphin highs which accompany intense exercise are the culprit. Some posit that the move away from steroid use could be blamed for inordinate gym schedules. Others claim that, as with other addictions, the root is psychological.

Perhaps the voices of low self-esteem are being silenced by the evident successes gained through exercise. Unfortunately, if this is the case, the drive to achieve self-acceptance could actually prove self-destructive as over-exercise inevitably leads to injury. The mindset of the person ultimately determines whether exercise has become a dysfunctional and addictive behavior.

Overcoming Exercise Addiction

For the person who senses that they may have crossed the line, there is a way back. Establishing a sensible exercise plan with a trainer is one step. Experienced trainers will plan for rest and recovery as part of the regimen. Follow the plan and do not add any “extras.”

When a planned exercise period is missed, so be it. Do not attempt to make up for it. And when, as will likely be the case, you find yourself with extra time that was once given over to training, invest it in the relationships that suffered neglect and inattention during the period of addiction.

Lastly, find a new diversion. Make balance in life a new goal and find a support system that can encourage you to do so.

The team used a Yale questionnaire which had been specifically designed to quantify seven discrete symptoms of addiction as recommended by the American Psychiatric Association. Those symptoms are: tolerance, withdrawal, substance taken in increasing amounts, inability to control abuse, large amounts of time spent in activities related to obtaining or using the substance, missing social or work events, and continued substance use despite obvious problems. The researchers substituted the word food for the word drug in each of the questions. The group of obese men and women given the questionnaire were subsequently divided, according to their responses, into addict/non-addict categories.

The two groups were then compared in three areas with relevance to addiction: 1) co-morbidity, or illnesses that often present together 2) psychological risk factors, both emotional and physiological, and 3) abnormal motivation for the substance. The two groups (addict/non-addict) showed no difference in age or weight but did demonstrate other key differences. In fact, the study appears to establish a psycho-behavioral outline for persons suffering from food addiction. Development of patient profiles is key to not only establishing the disorder, but also to effective treatment. Those in the ‘addict’ group were identified as experiencing higher incidences of binge-eating disorder, depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. According to Dr Davis’ findings, the personality profile for food addicts also encompasses higher degrees of impulsivity, and an increased likelihood of ‘self-soothing’ through food. The respondents in the addict category also displayed higher sensitivity to foods’ pleasurable qualities. Dr Davis points to current research being done with animals investigating fat and sugar addiction, saying that her findings extend prior research evidence to include men and women as experiencing such dependencies. Her team’s research corroborates those studies and gives strong evidence for similarities between drug and alcohol addiction and addiction to food substances.

The Toronto team believes their findings identify food addiction as a quantifiable condition with clinical (medically observable) symptoms similar to those exhibited by drug abusers. Understanding the various risk factors and the pre-dispositions involved with food dependency and compulsive eating could prove beneficial in the treatment of obesity and eating disorders, something Dr Davis hails as a necessary advance.

Back in 2007 there was a push to include video game addiction in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which is essentially the Bible when it comes to classifying mental disorders. The request was rejected due to lack of evidence, and critics claim that these compulsions are no different than watching five hours of television a night. They suggest that there is an underlying condition at the root of the compulsion – perhaps boredom or stress relief?

Researcher Sara Kiesler, PhD of Carnegie Mellon University says there is no research available yet confirming that the problems of Internet usage are not related to other underlying conditions such as loneliness or compulsive gambling. Still, other researchers contend that these individuals might not engage in these types of behaviors had the Internet not provided them with the motive and opportunity to do so. Founder of the Center of Internet Studies, David Greefield, PhD says that the Internet presents a paradox – it helps us form social connections but also fosters seclusion and solidarity.

Greenfield’s research has shown, however, that "problem" Internet users exhibit similar symptoms to those suffering from other addictions. He surveyed over 18,000 Internet users and discovered that nearly 6 percent had met the criteria for compulsive Internet use such as spending hours online without a break, feeling out of control, and hiding the true amount and context of Internet use from others.

Internet addiction has gained popularity partly because people can be anyone they want to be. The Internet provides a false sense of security and anonymity. It also provides an escape from reality, which only adds to its allure and universal appeal.

Recently the Internet has become abuzz with conversation swirling around the term Internet addiction disorder (IAD). Not to be confused with addiction, IAD describes when Internet use becomes problematic to the point of interfering with daily life. What exactly constitutes IAD is also a subject of controversy. Critics argue that original research on the subject was mainly based on exploratory surveys. Exploratory research, while insightful, does not prove a cause-effect relationship, and is therefore purely theory.

For now, it appears that experts will continue to debate over whether or not Internet addiction is actually a legitimate problem. In the meantime, those who believe they may have a problem with Internet use should seek out the help of a professional to rule out any underlying concerns that might be contributing to the issue.

The new study found that teenagers with certain gene variants were three times more likely to start smoking regularly in adolescence, and two times more likely to be regular smoking in adulthood, compared to those who don’t carry the gene variants.

The variations in a set of dopamine-related genes were associated with the risk of starting to smoke, and the genes had a stronger impact on beginning to smoke in adolescents than in adults. Those with the variants were 1.3 times more likely to start smoking in their teenage years.

The other set of genes were associated with the nicotinic cholinergic receptors, which are targeted in the brain during smoking. Variations in these genes contributed to the likelihood of smokers continuing the habit into adulthood, as it more strongly influenced adults than adolescents. People with these variations were 1.3 times more likely to be heavy, persistent smokers as adults.

Dr. John Krystal, Editor of the journal Biological Psychiatry, said that the dopamine-related genes may be more closely association with the risk for addiction in the context of pleasure-seeking, and cholinergic receptors, which have been associated with mood, cognition, and addiction, could contribute to self-medication as it relates to addiction.

These findings could help scientists create tests for those who want to know about their susceptibility to nicotine addiction and tobacco-related diseases. It could also help develop medication that could target an individual’s response to nicotine.

Source: Science Daily, Different Genes Influence Smoking Risk During Adolescence and Adulthood, March 31, 2011

Lead author Gene-Jack Wang, a physician at Brookhaven Lab and the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, said that the results show that dopamine is important in the neurology of binge eating disorder (BED). Previous studies by Wang’s team identified a similar dopamine increase in drug-addicted individuals when shown images of people using drugs, as well as other similarities between drug addiction and obesity, such as dopamine triggering drug and food cravings.

Wang said that in previous studies of healthy people who had been deprived of food for 16 hours, dopamine releases were associated with food craving and hunger. In the current study, the researchers wanted to find out whether obese individuals who binge eat would should stronger conditioned responses to food stimuli compared to non-binging obese individuals.

Wang explained that better understanding the mechanisms underlying drug cravings and food stimulation could help researchers develop new treatments to help people regulate their eating behaviors.

In the study, the researchers examined 10 people who were diagnosed with binge-eating disorder and 8 obese people who were not binge eaters. They used brain scans after injecting a radiotracer that binds dopamine receptors in the brain. The tracer competes with the brain’s natural dopamine to bind to the receptors, and the signal picked up by the PET scanner measures the brain’s dopamine levels. A strong signal indicates low levels of natural dopamine, and a low signal indicates high levels of natural dopamine.

Each participant was scanned four times over two days, testing the effects of food stimulation versus neutral stimulation, both with and without methylphenidate, a drug that amplifies dopamine signals by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, allowing it to stay in the brain longer.

For the food stimulation, the participants’ favorite foods were waved in front of their mouths and noses so they could smell and taste small amounts of the food; for the neutral stimulation condition, researchers showed participants non-food-related pictures and objects such as toys and clothing so the participants could smell them while in the scanner. All participants hadn’t eaten for 16 hours before the scans.

Binge eaters who were given methylphenidate and food stimulation showed significantly increased dopamine levels in the brain compared to non-binge eaters. Those with the most severe BED had the highest dopamine levels. Dopamine levels did not significantly rise significantly in other brain regions or under other conditions in either group, and were not associated with the subjects’ body mass index (BMI).

Wang said the main difference between binge eaters and non-binge eaters was an increase in dopamine levels in the caudate region of the brain in binge eaters in response to food stimulation. This means that the sight or smell of favorite foods in binge eaters triggers food cravings.

The researchers note that the dopamine response is in a different part of the brain from what has been observed in drug addiction studies. The caudate is associated with reinforcement of action that potentially leads to reward, but not necessarily in processing the reward. This suggests that the dopamine response gets the brain ready to seek the reward; a pattern that is also observed in drug addicts.

Because binge eating is not exclusive to obese individuals, the researchers note that more studies need to be done to determine the neurobiological factors that may differentiate obese and non-obese binge eaters.

Source: Science Daily, Binge Eaters’ Dopamine Levels Spike at Sight, Smell of Food, February 28, 2011

Researchers compared the cortical thickness of smokers and non-smokers who didn’t suffer from medical or psychiatric illness, and found that smokers had cortical thinning in the orbitofrtonal cortex. The cortical thinning also correlated with the amount of cigarettes they smoked per day and the amount at which they were exposed to cigarette smoke over their lifetime. This suggests that heavier smoking was associated with more cortical thinning.

Because the orbitofrontal cortext has been associated with drug addiction, the study suggests that smoking-related cortical thinning may increase the risk of addiction, including smoking.

Dr. Simone Kühn said that the brain region that was associated with cortical thinning has been linked to decision making, impulse control, and reward processing, which could explain how addiction manifests, adding that in a follow-up study, the researchers plan to look at the positive effects of quitting smoking on the brain.

John Krystal, M.D., editor of Biological Psychiatry and professor and chair of Psychiatry at Yale University, said that the findings underscore the importance of explaining how important abstaining from smoking is to adolescents, as smoking could negatively change important regions of the brain—especially since the brain is still developing in adolescence.

Source: Science Daily, Smoking May Thin the Brain, December 2, 2010

Lead author Kerry Kerstetter of the University of California, Santa Barbara, said that previous studies in humans have found that women enter treatment for addiction faster than men and report shorter periods of abstinence from cocaine.

Because male and female rats also present differences when it comes to their responses to cocaine, the researchers figured they would also present differences when given a choice between food and cocaine.

The researchers trained the rats to press one lever for food and another for cocaine, and then were offered a choice between the two. They found that females chose cocaine much more often than the male rats, which mostly chose the food.

When higher doses of cocaine were offered, both the males and females chose cocaine more often, but the females chose the drug more often than the males. Kerstetter said it appeared that the females were more likely to forgo food in favor of low doses of cocaine.

Source: Science Daily, Sweets or Cocaine? Male Rats Prefer Sweets, Female Rats Favor Cocaine, November 15, 2010